Agrivoltaics in India: A promising nexus of solar energy and agriculture for sustainable development

This study synthesizes the potential of agrivoltaics (APV) in India, integrating solar energy and agriculture. Our review indicates APV can be a net-positive intervention, enhancing land productivity (Land Equivalent Ratio often ' 1.5) and farmer incomes, but benefits are highly condition-dependent. Net gains are maximized with (i) shade-tolerant crops (e.g., leafy greens, turmeric), (ii) moderate panel density (Ground Coverage Ratio ∼25–35%), (iii) supportive policies like revised feed-in tariffs (∼₹4/kWh), and (iv) in contexts where water conservation or heat stress mitigation adds agricultural value. For instance, APV on grape farms can increase economic value over 15-fold, while a 50 MWp system in Maharashtra shows a competitive levelized cost of ₹2.02/kWh. However, a high LER can mask crop losses offset by energy revenue, and unsuitable designs or tariffs may cause up to 20% losses for generators. Success requires tailored system design, crop selection, and policy refinements to the national PM-KUSUM scheme, underscoring APV’s role in sustainable development while highlighting its context-sensitive nature.