Assessing the implementation levels of oil palm waste conversion methods in Malaysia and the challenges of commercialisation: Towards sustainable energy production

The conversion of oil palm waste to valuable fuels via biological and thermochemical means has witnessed much interest from researchers. Increasing tonnes of palm waste resulting from about 400 palm oil mills across Malaysia necessitates a rethink towards its conversion to energy to curb soil and air pollution, underground water contamination, and pest habitats. Converting these palm wastes to fuel at a commercial scale is necessary to advance Malaysia's bioenergy. This will ensure cleaner production and sustainability by providing low carbon energy that could be used in industrial, transport, and residential sectors. However, what is the technology readiness levels of these conversion methods in Malaysia? Have they reached commercialisation? What hinders them from attaining it? This study conducted an intensive literature review on five conversion technologies broadly classified as thermochemical (combustion, gasification and pyrolysis) and biological (anaerobic digestion and fermentation) to identify the extent to which each process has been adopted. For each of the technologies, the following were established: (1) Studies conducted by researchers using different palm wastes; (2) Challenges faced; (3) Technology readiness level. The significant findings revealed that fermentation is still at a lab scale, gasification and anaerobic digestion have reached pilot-scale while combustion and pyrolysis have attained commercialisation. Significant commercialisation challenges include technical and economic issues, communal consciousness, and stakeholder gap. Current research gaps, recommendations, future outlooks, and the way forward were discussed, along with developing a framework that features the key barriers, enablers, and stakeholders responsible for commercialisation.